Loosely speaking, a statement is composed of expressions that are grouped according to the syntax or grammar of the language to express a complete computation. Statements are analogous to sentences in a human language and expressions are like phrases. All statements in the S-Lang language must end in a semi-colon.
A statement that occurs within a function is executed only during execution of the function. However, statements that occur outside the context of a function are evaluated immediately.
The language supports several different types of statements such as assignment statements, conditional statements, and so forth. These are described in detail in the following sections.
Variable declarations were already discussed in chapter ???. For the sake of completeness, a variable declaration is a statement of the form
variable variable-declaration-list ;
variable x, y = 2, z;
Perhaps the most well known form of statement is the assignment statement. Statements of this type consist of a left-hand side, an assignment operator, and a right-hand side. The left-hand side must be something to which an assignment can be performed. Such an object is called an lvalue.
The most common assignment operator is the simple assignment
operator =. Simple of its use include
x = 3;
x = some_function (10);
x = 34 + 27/y + some_function (z);
x = x + 3;
+= and -=.
Internally, S-Lang transforms
a += b;
a = a + b;
a -= b is transformed to a = a - b. It is
extremely important to realize that, in general, a+b is not
equal to b+a. This means that a+=b is not the same
as a=b+a. As an example consider
a = "hello"; a += "world";
a will have the
value "helloworld" and not "worldhello".
Since adding or subtracting 1 from a variable is quite
common, S-Lang also supports the unary increment and decrement
operators ++, and --, respectively. That is, for
numeric data types,
x = x + 1;
x += 1;
x++;
x = x - 1;
x -= 1;
x--;
Strictly speaking, ++ and -- are unary operators. When
used as x++, the ++ operator is said to be a
postfix-unary operator. However, when used as ++x it is
said to be a prefix-unary operator. The current
implementation does not distinguish between the two forms, thus
x++ and ++x are equivalent. The reason for this
equivalence is that assignment expressions do not return a value in
the S-Lang language as they do in C. Thus one should exercise care
and not try to write C-like code such as
x = 10;
while (--x) do_something (x); % Ok in C, but not in S-Lang
x = 10;
while (x--, x) do_something (x); % Ok in S-Lang and in C
S-Lang also supports a multiple-assignment statement. It is discussed in detail in section ???.
S-Lang supports a wide variety of conditional and looping statements. These constructs operate on statements grouped together in blocks. A block is a sequence of S-Lang statements enclosed in braces and may contain other blocks. However, a block cannot include function declarations. In the following, statement-or-block refers to either a single S-Lang statement or to a block of statements, and integer-expression is an integer-valued expression. next-statement represents the statement following the form under discussion.
The simplest condition statement is the if statement. It
follows the syntax
if (integer-expression) statement-or-block
next-statement
An example of the use of this type of conditional statement is
if (x != 0)
{
y = 1.0 / x;
if (x > 0) z = log (x);
}
if statements where the second
if statement is part of the block of statements that belong to
the first.
Another form of if statement is the if-else statement.
It follows the syntax:
if (integer-expression) statement-or-block-1
else statement-or-block-2
next-statement
if (x > 0) z = log (x); else error ("x must be positive");
if (city == "Boston")
if (street == "Beacon") found = 1;
else if (city == "Madrid")
if (street == "Calle Mayor") found = 1;
else found = 0;
if (city == "Boston")
{
if (street == "Beacon") found = 1;
else if (city == "Madrid")
{
if (street == "Calle Mayor") found = 1;
else found = 0;
}
}
One often encounters if statements similar to
if (integer-expression == 0) statement-or-block
if (not(integer-expression)) statement-or-block
!if statement was added to the language to simplify the
handling of such statements. It obeys the syntax
!if (integer-expression) statement-or-block
if (not (expression)) statement-or-block
These constructs were discussed earlier. The syntax for the
orelse statement is:
orelse {integer-expression-1} ... {integer-expression-n}
orelse { 0 } { 6 } { 2 } { 3 }
6 since the second block is the first to return a
non-zero result. The last two block will not get executed.
The syntax for the andelse statement is:
andelse {integer-expression-1} ... {integer-expression-n}
andelse { 6 } { 2 } { 0 } { 4 }
0 since the third block will be the last to execute.
The switch statement deviates the most from its C counterpart. The syntax is:
switch (x)
{ ... : ...}
.
.
{ ... : ...}
:' operator is a special symbol which means to test
the top item on the stack, and if it is non-zero, the rest of the block
will get executed and control will pass out of the switch statement.
Otherwise, the execution of the block will be terminated and the process
will be repeated for the next block. If a block contains no
: operator, the entire block is executed and control will
pass onto the next statement following the switch statement.
Such a block is known as the default case.
As a simple example, consider the following:
switch (x)
{ x == 1 : print("Number is one.");}
{ x == 2 : print("Number is two.");}
{ x == 3 : print("Number is three.");}
{ x == 4 : print("Number is four.");}
{ x == 5 : print("Number is five.");}
{ print ("Number is greater than five.");}
x has an integer value of 3. The first two
blocks will terminate at the `:' character because each of the
comparisons with x will produce zero. However, the third
block will execute to completion. Similarly, if x is
7, only the last block will execute in full.
A more familiar way to write the previous example used the
case keyword:
switch (x)
{ case 1 : print("Number is one.");}
{ case 2 : print("Number is two.");}
{ case 3 : print("Number is three.");}
{ case 4 : print("Number is four.");}
{ case 5 : print("Number is five.");}
{ print ("Number is greater than five.");}
case keyword is a more useful comparison operator because
it can perform a comparison between different data types while
using == may result in a type-mismatch error. For example,
switch (x)
{ (x == 1) or (x == "one") : print("Number is one.");}
{ (x == 2) or (x == "two") : print("Number is two.");}
{ (x == 3) or (x == "three") : print("Number is three.");}
{ (x == 4) or (x == "four") : print("Number is four.");}
{ (x == 5) or (x == "five") : print("Number is five.");}
{ print ("Number is greater than five.");}
== operation is not defined between
strings and integers. The correct way to write this to use the
case keyword:
switch (x)
{ case 1 or case "one" : print("Number is one.");}
{ case 2 or case "two" : print("Number is two.");}
{ case 3 or case "three" : print("Number is three.");}
{ case 4 or case "four" : print("Number is four.");}
{ case 5 or case "five" : print("Number is five.");}
{ print ("Number is greater than five.");}
The while statement follows the syntax
while (integer-expression) statement-or-block
next-statement
i = 10;
while (i)
{
i--;
newline ();
}
newline function to get called 10 times.
However,
i = -10;
while (i)
{
i--;
newline ();
}
i wraps from the most negative
integer value to the most positive and then decrements to zero).
If you are a C programmer, do not let the syntax of the language seduce you into writing this example as you would in C:
i = 10;
while (i--) newline ();
i-- do not return a
value in S-Lang as they do in C. If you must write this way, use
the comma operator as in
i = 10;
while (i, i--) newline ();
The do...while statement follows the syntax
do
statement-or-block
while (integer-expression);
while
statement is that the do...while form performs the test
involving integer-expression after each execution
of statement-or-block rather than before. This guarantees that
statement-or-block will get executed at least once.
A simple example from the jed editor follows:
bob (); % Move to beginning of buffer
do
{
indent_line ();
}
while (down (1));
indent_line.
Perhaps the most complex looping statement is the for
statement; nevertheless, it is a favorite of many programmers.
This statement obeys the syntax
for (init-expression; integer-expression; end-expression)
statement-or-block
next-statement
for statement
evaluates init-expression, then it tests
integer-expression. If integer-expression returns zero,
control passes to next-statement. Otherwise, it executes
statement-or-block as long as integer-expression
evaluates to a non-zero result. After every execution of
statement-or-block, end-expression will get evaluated.
This statement is almost equivalent to
init-expression;
while (integer-expression)
{
statement-or-block
end-expression;
}
continue statement.
Despite the apparent complexity of the for statement, it is
very easy to use. As an example, consider
sum = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= 10; i++) sum += i;
The loop statement simply executes a block of code a fixed
number of times. It follows the syntax
loop (integer-expression) statement-or-block
next-statement
For example,
loop (10) newline ();
newline to get called 10 times.
The forever statement is similar to the loop statement
except that it loops forever, or until a break or a
return statement is executed. It obeys the syntax
forever statement-or-block
n = 10;
forever
{
if (n == 0) break;
newline ();
n--;
}
The foreach statement is used to loop over one or more
statements for every element in a container object. A container
object is a data type that consists of other types. Examples
include both ordinary and associative arrays, structures, and
strings. Every time through the loop the current member of the
object is pushed onto the stack.
The simple type of foreach statement obeys the syntax
foreach (container-object) statement-or-block
foreach (["apple", "peach", "pear"])
{
fruit = ();
process_fruit (fruit);
}
What actually gets pushed onto the stack may be controlled via the
using form of the foreach statement. This more complex
type of foreach statement follows the syntax
foreach ( container-object ) using ( control-list )
statement-or-block
Assoc_Type),
control-list specified whether keys, values, or both
are pushed onto the stack. For example,
foreach (a) using ("keys")
{
k = ();
.
.
}
a being pushed
on the list. However,
foreach (a) using ("values")
{
v = ();
.
.
}
foreach (a) using ("keys", "values")
{
(k,v) = ();
.
.
}
Similarly, for linked-lists of structures, one may walk the list via code like
foreach (linked_list) using ("next")
{
s = ();
.
.
}
foreach statement is equivalent
s = linked_list;
while (s != NULL)
{
.
.
s = s.next;
}
using control words, if any, appropriate for a given type.
S-Lang also includes the non-local transfer functions return, break,
and continue. The return statement causes control to return to the
calling function while the break and continue statements are used in
the context of loop structures. Consider:
define fun ()
{
forever
{
s1;
s2;
..
if (condition_1) break;
if (condition_2) return;
if (condition_3) continue;
..
s3;
}
s4;
..
}
fun has been defined that contains a forever
loop consisting of statements s1, s2,...,s3, and
three if statements. As long as the expressions condition_1,
condition_2, and condition_3 evaluate to zero, the statements
s1, s2,...,s3 will be repeatedly executed. However,
if condition_1 returns a non-zero value, the break statement
will get executed, and control will pass out of the forever loop to
the statement immediately following the loop which in this case is
s4. Similarly, if condition_2 returns a non-zero number,
the return statement will cause control to pass back to the
caller of fun. Finally, the continue statement will
cause control to pass back to the start of the loop, skipping the
statement s3 altogether.